Art and Architecture of Ancient Greece and Its Effect on Religion

Era of compages

Ancient Greek architecture

Acme: The Parthenon (460-406 BC); Centre: The Erechtheion (421-406 BC); Bottom: Analogy of Doric (left three), Ionic (middle three) and Corinthian (right two) columns
Years active	c. 900 BC-1st century AD

Aboriginal Greek architecture came from the Greek-speaking people (Hellenic people) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Anatolia and Italian republic for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the primeval remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC.^[one]

Aboriginal Greek architecture is all-time known from its temples, many of which are institute throughout the region, with the Parthenon regarded, now as in ancient times, as the prime example.^[2] Most remains are very incomplete ruins, merely a number survive essentially intact, mostly outside modern Greece. The second of import type of building that survives all over the Hellenic world is the open up-air theatre, with the earliest dating from around 525–480 BC. Other architectural forms that are still in prove are the processional gateway (propylon), the public foursquare (agora) surrounded by storied pillar (stoa), the town council building (bouleuterion), the public monument, the monumental tomb (mausoleum) and the stadium.

Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished past its highly formalised characteristics, both of structure and decoration. This is particularly so in the case of temples where each edifice appears to have been conceived equally a sculptural entity inside the landscape, about often raised on loftier basis so that the elegance of its proportions and the effects of calorie-free on its surfaces might be viewed from all angles.^[3] Nikolaus Pevsner refers to "the plastic shape of the [Greek] temple [...] placed before us with a concrete presence more intense, more alive than that of any after building".^[4]

The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Social club and the Corinthian Order, was to have a profound effect on Western architecture of after periods. The architecture of ancient Rome grew out of that of Greece and maintained its influence in Italy unbroken until the nowadays day. From the Renaissance, revivals of Classicism have kept alive not only the precise forms and ordered details of Greek architecture, but as well its concept of architectural beauty based on rest and proportion. The successive styles of Neoclassical compages and Greek Revival compages followed and adjusted ancient Greek styles closely.

Influences [edit]

Geography [edit]

The mainland and islands of Greece are very rocky, with deeply indented coastline, and rugged mountain ranges with few substantial forests. The most freely available building material is stone. Limestone was readily available and easily worked.^[5] In that location is an abundance of high quality white marble both on the mainland and islands, particularly Paros and Naxos. This finely grained material was a major contributing factor to precision of detail, both architectural and sculptural, that adorned ancient Greek architecture.^{[half dozen]} Deposits of high-quality potter's clay were plant throughout Hellenic republic and the Islands, with major deposits most Athens. It was used non but for pottery vessels only also roof tiles and architectural ornamentation.^[7]

The climate of Greece is maritime, with both the coldness of winter and the heat of summer tempered by sea breezes. This led to a lifestyle where many activities took place outdoors. Hence temples were placed on hilltops, their exteriors designed as a visual focus of gatherings and processions, while theatres were ofttimes an enhancement of a naturally occurring sloping site where people could sit, rather than a containing structure. Colonnades encircling buildings, or surrounding courtyards provided shelter from the sunday and from sudden wintertime storms.^[six]

The light of Greece may be another important factor in the evolution of the detail graphic symbol of ancient Greek architecture. The light is frequently extremely brilliant, with both the sky and the sea vividly bluish. The articulate light and sharp shadows give a precision to the details of the landscape, pale rocky outcrops and seashore. This clarity is alternated with periods of brume that varies in color to the light on it. In this characteristic surround, the ancient Greek architects constructed buildings that were marked by the precision of detail.^[half-dozen] The gleaming marble surfaces were smooth, curved, fluted, or ornately sculpted to reflect the dominicus, cast graded shadows and change in color with the ever-changing light of day.

The rugged indented coastline at Rhamnous, Attica

The Theatre and Temple of Apollo in mountainous country at Delphi

The Acropolis, Athens, is high in a higher place the city on a natural prominence.

History [edit]

Historians carve up aboriginal Greek civilisation into ii eras, the Hellenic period (from around 900 BC to the decease of Alexander the Great in 323 BC), and the Hellenistic period (323 BC to 30 AD).^[8] During the earlier Hellenic period, substantial works of compages began to appear around 600 BC. During the later (Hellenistic) menstruum, Greek culture spread as a result of Alexander's conquest of other lands, and afterward equally a result of the rising of the Roman Empire, which adopted much of Greek culture.^{[1] [9]}

Earlier the Hellenic era, two major cultures had dominated the region: the Minoan (c. 2800–1100 BC), and the Mycenaean (c. 1500–1100 BC). Minoan is the proper noun given by mod historians to the culture of the people of ancient Crete, known for its elaborate and richly decorated palaces, and for its pottery, the most famous of which painted with floral and motifs of bounding main life. The Mycenaean culture, which flourished on the Peloponnesus, was quite dissimilar in character. Its people congenital citadels, fortifications and tombs rather than palaces, and busy their pottery with bands of marching soldiers rather than octopus and seaweed. Both these civilizations came to an terminate around 1100 BC, that of Crete possibly considering of volcanic destruction, and that of Mycenae because of an invasion past the Dorian people who lived on the Greek mainland.^[x] Following these events, there was a period from which only a village level of culture seems to have existed. This menses is thus often referred to every bit the Greek Dark Age.

Fine art [edit]

Black figure Amphora, Atalante painter (500–490 BC), shows proportion and style that are hallmarks of ancient Greek fine art

The Kritios Boy, (c.480 BC), typifies the tradition of free-standing figures

The art history of the Hellenic era is by and large subdivided into four periods: the Protogeometric (1100–900 BC), the Geometric (900–700 BC), the Archaic (700–500 BC) and the Classical (500–323 BC)^[11] with sculpture beingness further divided into Severe Classical, High Classical and Late Classical.^[1] The first signs of the particular creative character that defines ancient Greek architecture are to exist seen in the pottery of the Dorian Greeks from the 10th century BC. Already at this period it is created with a sense of proportion, symmetry and residual not credible in similar pottery from Crete and Mycenae. The decoration is precisely geometric, and ordered neatly into zones on defined areas of each vessel. These qualities were to manifest themselves not just through a millennium of Greek pottery making, but also in the architecture that was to emerge in the sixth century.^[12] The major development that occurred was in the growing use of the human effigy as the major decorative motif, and the increasing surety with which humanity, its mythology, activities and passions were depicted.^[1]

The development in the delineation of the human grade in pottery was accompanied by a similar development in sculpture. The tiny stylised bronzes of the Geometric period gave fashion to life-sized highly formalised monolithic representation in the Archaic catamenia. The Classical menstruum was marked by a rapid development towards idealised but increasingly lifelike depictions of gods in man class.^[13] This development had a direct effect on the sculptural decoration of temples, as many of the greatest extant works of aboriginal Greek sculpture once adorned temples,^[14] and many of the largest recorded statues of the age, such as the lost chryselephantine statues of Zeus at the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and Athena at the Parthenon, Athens, both over forty feet high, were in one case housed in them.^[15]

Religion and philosophy [edit]

Above: Modern model of ancient Olympia with the Temple of Zeus at the center

Right: Recreation of the colossal statue of Athena, once housed in the Parthenon, with sculptor Alan LeQuire

The faith of ancient Greece was a course of nature worship that grew out of the beliefs of earlier cultures. However, unlike earlier cultures, the man was no longer perceived as existence threatened past nature, but as its sublime product.^[ix] The natural elements were personified equally gods of the complete man grade, and very homo behaviour.^[6]

The home of the gods was thought to be Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. The most important deities were: Zeus, the supreme god and ruler of the sky; Hera, his wife and goddess of matrimony; Athena, goddess of wisdom; Poseidon, the god of the sea; Demeter, goddess of the harvest; Apollo, the god of the sunday, police, healing, plague, reason, music and poesy; Artemis, goddess of the moon, the hunt and the wilderness; Aphrodite, goddess of love; Ares, God of war; Hermes, the god of commerce and travellers, Hephaestus, the god of burn down and metalwork, and Dionysus, the god of vino and fruit-begetting plants.^[6] Worship, like many other activities, was done in the community, in the open. Withal, by 600 BC, the gods were often represented by large statues and it was necessary to provide a building in which each of these could be housed. This led to the evolution of temples.^[16]

The ancient Greeks perceived order in the universe, and in plough, applied gild and reason to their creations. Their humanist philosophy put mankind at the middle of things and promoted well-ordered societies and the development of democracy.^[9] At the same time, the respect for human intellect demanded a reason, and promoted a passion for enquiry, logic, claiming, and trouble-solving. The architecture of the ancient Greeks, and in particular, temple architecture, responds to these challenges with a passion for beauty, and for order and symmetry which is the product of a continual search for perfection, rather than a uncomplicated application of a prepare of working rules.

Architectural character [edit]

Early development [edit]

There is a clear division betwixt the architecture of the preceding Mycenaean and Minoan cultures and that of the ancient Greeks, with much of the techniques and an understanding of their fashion being lost when these civilisations brutal.^[five]

Mycenaean architecture is marked by massive fortifications, typically surrounding a citadel with a imperial palace, much smaller than the rambling Minoan "palaces", and relatively few other buildings. The megaron, a rectangular hall with a hearth in the eye, was the largest room in the palaces, and also larger houses. Sun-dried brick above rubble bases were the usual materials, with wooden columns and roof-beams. Rows of ashlar stone orthostats lined the base of walls in some prominent locations.^[17]

The Minoan architecture of Crete was of the trabeated form like that of ancient Greece. It employed wooden columns with capitals, but the wooden columns were of a very different form to Doric columns, being narrow at the base and splaying upward.^[10] The earliest forms of columns in Greece seem to accept adult independently. As with Minoan architecture, aboriginal Greek domestic compages centred on open spaces or courtyards surrounded by colonnades. This form was adapted to the construction of hypostyle halls inside the larger temples. The evolution that occurred in architecture was towards the public edifice, commencement and foremost the temple, rather than towards grand domestic architecture such every bit had evolved in Crete,^[three] if the Cretan "palaces" were indeed domestic, which remains very uncertain.

Some Mycenaean tombs are marked by circular structures and tapered domes with flat-bedded, cantilevered courses.^[10] This architectural form did not deport over into the architecture of ancient Greece, but reappeared well-nigh 400 BC in the interior of large monumental tombs such as the Panthera leo Tomb at Knidos (c. 350 BC).

Types of buildings [edit]

Domestic buildings [edit]

The Greek give-and-take for the family or household, oikos, is besides the name for the house. Houses followed several dissimilar types. It is probable that many of the earliest houses were simple structures of 2 rooms, with an open porch or pronaos, in a higher place which rose a depression pitched gable or pediment.^[8] This class is thought to accept contributed to temple compages.

Program of the House of Colline, 2nd century BC

The House of Masks, Delos, 3rd century BC

The Business firm of Masks

The construction of many houses employed walls of sun-stale clay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous fabric such every bit straw or seaweed covered with clay or plaster, on a base of rock which protected the more than vulnerable elements from clammy.^[5] The roofs were probably of thatch with eaves which overhung the permeable walls. Many larger houses, such as those at Delos, were congenital of stone and plastered. The roofing material for the substantial house was tile. Houses of the wealthy had mosaic floors and demonstrated the Classical manner.

Many houses centred on a wide passage or "pasta" which ran the length of the house and opened at one side onto a small courtyard which admitted light and air. Larger houses had a fully developed peristyle (courtyard) at the heart, with the rooms arranged around it. Some houses had an upper floor which appears to have been reserved for the utilize of the women of the family.^[18]

Urban center houses were built with adjoining walls and were divided into small blocks by narrow streets. Shops were sometimes located in the rooms towards the street. Metropolis houses were in-facing, with major openings looking onto the central courtyard, rather than the street.^[8]

Public buildings [edit]

The rectangular temple is the most common and best-known form of Greek public compages. This rectilinear structure borrows from the Late Helladic, Mycenaean megaron, which independent a central throne room, vestibule, and porch.^[19] The temple did non serve the same role equally a modernistic church building, since the altar stood nether the open sky in the temenos or sacred precinct, often direct before the temple. Temples served equally the location of a cult paradigm and equally a storage place or strong room for the treasury associated with the cult of the god in question, and as a place for devotees of the god to get out their votive offerings, such as statues, helmets and weapons. Some Greek temples appear to have been oriented astronomically.^[20] The temple was generally part of a religious precinct known as the acropolis. According to Aristotle, "the site should exist a spot seen far and wide, which gives good elevation to virtue and towers over the neighbourhood".^[3] Small circular temples, tholoi were too synthetic, besides equally small-scale temple-like buildings that served every bit treasuries for specific groups of donors.^[21]

Porta Rosa, a street (3rd century BC) Velia, Italy

During the late 5th and 4th centuries BC, town planning became an of import consideration of Greek builders, with towns such as Paestum and Priene being laid out with a regular grid of paved streets and an agora or key marketplace surrounded by a colonnade or stoa. The completely restored Stoa of Attalos can be seen in Athens. Towns were also equipped with a public fountain where water could be nerveless for household use. The development of regular boondocks plans is associated with Hippodamus of Miletus, a pupil of Pythagoras.^{[22] [23] [24]}

Public buildings became "dignified and gracious structures", and were sited and so that they related to each other architecturally.^[23] The propylon or porch, formed the entrance to temple sanctuaries and other pregnant sites with the best-surviving example being the Propylaea on the Acropolis of Athens. The bouleuterion was a large public building with a hypostyle hall that served as a courtroom house and as a meeting identify for the town quango (boule). Remnants of bouleuterion survive at Athens, Olympia and Miletus, the latter having held up to ane,200 people.^[25]

Every Greek town had an open-air theatre. These were used for both public meetings as well equally dramatic performances. The theatre was ordinarily prepare in a hillside outside the boondocks, and had rows of tiered seating prepare in a semicircle around the central functioning surface area, the orchestra. Behind the orchestra was a low building called the skênê, which served equally a store-room, a dressing-room, and also as a properties to the action taking place in the orchestra. A number of Greek theatres survive about intact, the best known being at Epidaurus by the architect Polykleitos the Younger.^[22]

Greek towns of substantial size also had a palaestra or a gymnasium, the social centre for male person citizens which included spectator areas, baths, toilets and club rooms.^[25] Other buildings associated with sports include the hippodrome for horse racing, of which just remnants have survived, and the stadium for foot racing, 600 anxiety in length, of which examples be at Olympia, Delphi, Epidaurus and Ephesus, while the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens, which seats 45,000 people, was restored in the 19th century and was used in the 1896, 1906 and 2004 Olympic Games.^{[25] [26]}

The Palaestra at Olympia, used for battle and wrestling

Pebble mosaic flooring of a firm at Olynthos, depicting Bellerophon

Structure [edit]

Post and lintel [edit]

The architecture of ancient Greece is of a trabeated or "mail service and lintel" form, i.e. it is equanimous of upright beams (posts) supporting horizontal beams (lintels). Although the existent buildings of the era are constructed in stone, information technology is clear that the origin of the style lies in simple wooden structures, with vertical posts supporting beams which carried a ridged roof. The posts and beams divided the walls into regular compartments which could be left as openings, or filled with sun stale bricks, lathes or straw and covered with dirt daub or plaster. Alternately, the spaces might be filled with rubble. It is probable that many early houses and temples were constructed with an open up porch or "pronaos" above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment.^[8]

The earliest temples, built to enshrine statues of deities, were probably of wooden construction, after replaced past the more than durable stone temples many of which are all the same in testify today. The signs of the original timber nature of the architecture were maintained in the stone buildings.^[27]

A few of these temples are very large, with several, such as the Temple of Zeus Olympus and the Olympians at Athens being well over 300 feet in length, but most were less than half this size. Information technology appears that some of the large temples began every bit wooden constructions in which the columns were replaced piecemeal as stone became available. This, at least was the interpretation of the historian Pausanias looking at the Temple of Hera at Olympia in the 2d century Advertizing.^[3]

The stone columns are made of a serial of solid rock cylinders or "drums" that rest on each other without mortar, just were sometimes centred with a bronze pivot. The columns are wider at the base than at the peak, tapering with an outward curve known every bit entasis. Each column has a capital of ii parts, the upper, on which rests the lintels, being square and called the abacus. The part of the uppercase that rises from the column itself is called the echinus. Information technology differs co-ordinate to the order, being manifestly in the Doric social club, fluted in the Ionic and foliate in the Corinthian. Doric and usually Ionic capitals are cutting with vertical grooves known every bit fluting. This fluting or grooving of the columns is a memory of an element of the original wooden architecture.^[27]

Entablature and pediment [edit]

The columns of a temple support a structure that rises in two main stages, the entablature and the pediment.

The entablature is the major horizontal structural element supporting the roof and encircling the unabridged building. It is composed of three parts. Resting on the columns is the architrave made of a series of stone "lintels" that spanned the infinite between the columns, and meet each other at a joint directly in a higher place the centre of each column.

Above the architrave is a second horizontal phase called the frieze. The frieze is one of the major decorative elements of the building and carries a sculptured relief. In the case of Ionic and Corinthian architecture, the relief decoration runs in a continuous band, but in the Doric order, it is divided into sections called metopes, which make full the spaces betwixt vertical rectangular blocks called triglyphs. The triglyphs are vertically grooved like the Doric columns, and retain the form of the wooden beams that would once accept supported the roof.

The upper band of the entablature is called the cornice, which is generally ornately busy on its lower edge. The cornice retains the shape of the beams that would once accept supported the wooden roof at each end of the building. At the front and rear of each temple, the entablature supports a triangular structure called the pediment. The tympanum is the triangular space framed by the cornices and the location of the near significant sculptural ornament on the exterior of the building.

Masonry [edit]

Every temple rested on a masonry base called the crepidoma, generally of iii steps, of which the upper one which carried the columns was the stylobate. Masonry walls were employed for temples from about 600 BC onwards. Masonry of all types was used for ancient Greek buildings, including rubble, but the finest ashlar masonry was usually employed for temple walls, in regular courses and large sizes to minimise the joints.^[8] The blocks were rough hewn and hauled from quarries to be cut and bedded very precisely, with mortar hardly ever existence used. Blocks, especially those of columns and parts of the building bearing loads were sometimes fixed in identify or reinforced with iron clamps, dowels and rods of wood, statuary or fe stock-still in lead to minimise corrosion.^[5]

Openings [edit]

Door and window openings were spanned with a lintel, which in a stone building limited the possible width of the opening. The distance between columns was similarly affected by the nature of the lintel, columns on the exterior of buildings and carrying stone lintels beingness closer together than those on the interior, which carried wooden lintels.^{[28] [29]} Door and window openings narrowed towards the peak.^[29] Temples were constructed without windows, the light to the naos entering through the door. Information technology has been suggested that some temples were lit from openings in the roof.^[28] A door of the Ionic Guild at the Erechtheion (17 anxiety loftier and 7.5 feet wide at the top) retains many of its features intact, including mouldings, and an entablature supported on panel brackets. (Come across Architectural Ornamentation, below) ^{[29] [30] [31]}

The Parthenon, shows the common structural features of Ancient Greek compages: crepidoma, columns, entablature, pediment.

Erechtheion: masonry, door, stone lintels, coffered ceiling panels

At the Temple of Aphaia, the hypostyle columns rise in ii tiers, to a acme greater than the walls, to back up a roof without struts.

Roof [edit]

The widest span of a temple roof was across the cella, or inner chamber. In a big edifice, this infinite contains columns to support the roof, the architectural form being known as hypostyle. Information technology appears that, although the architecture of aboriginal Greece was initially of wooden construction, the early on builders did not have the concept of the diagonal truss as a stabilising member. This is evidenced by the nature of temple construction in the sixth century BC, where the rows of columns supporting the roof the cella rise college than the outer walls, unnecessary if roof trusses are employed as an integral part of the wooden roof. The indication is that initially all the rafters were supported directly past the entablature, walls and hypostyle, rather than on a trussed wooden frame, which came into use in Greek architecture only in the 3rd century BC.^[8]

Ancient Greek buildings of timber, clay and plaster construction were probably roofed with thatch. With the ascent of stone architecture came the appearance of fired ceramic roof tiles. These early on roof tiles showed an Due south-shape, with the pan and cover tile forming ane piece. They were much larger than modern roof tiles, being up to 90 cm (35.43 in) long, seventy cm (27.56 in) wide, three–iv cm (1.xviii–1.57 in) thick and weighing effectually 30 kg (66 lb) apiece.^[32] Only stone walls, which were replacing the before mudbrick and wood walls, were strong enough to back up the weight of a tiled roof.^[33]

The earliest finds of roof tiles of the Archaic menstruation in Greece are documented from a very restricted area effectually Corinth, where fired tiles began to supercede thatched roofs at the temples of Apollo and Poseidon between 700 and 650 BC.^[34] Spreading rapidly, roof tiles were within 50 years in evidence for a big number of sites effectually the Eastern Mediterranean, including Mainland Greece, Western Asia Minor, Southern and Central Italian republic.^[34] Being more expensive and labour-intensive to produce than thatch, their introduction has been explained by the fact that their fireproof quality would have given desired protection to the costly temples.^[34] Every bit a side-effect, it has been causeless that the new rock and tile construction also ushered in the terminate of overhanging eaves in Greek architecture, every bit they fabricated the need for an extended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete.^[33]

Vaults and arches were not generally used, just begin to appear in tombs (in a "beehive" or cantilevered class such equally used in Mycenaea) and occasionally, as an external feature, exedrae of voussoired construction from the 5th century BC. The dome and vault never became significant structural features, as they were to become in aboriginal Roman architecture.^[viii]

Temple plans [edit]

Plans of Aboriginal Greek Temples
Top: ane. distyle in antis, two. amphidistyle in antis, iii. tholos, 4. prostyle tetrastyle, 5. amphiprostyle tetrastyle,
Bottom: six. dipteral octastyle, vii. peripteral hexastyle, eight. pseudoperipteral hexastyle, ix. pseudodipteral octastyle

Most ancient Greek temples were rectangular, and were approximately twice every bit long equally they were wide, with some notable exceptions such as the enormous Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens with a length of nearly 2½ times its width. A number of surviving temple-like structures are circular, and are referred to equally tholos.^[35] The smallest temples are less than 25 metres (approx. 75 anxiety) in length, or in the instance of the round tholos, in bore. The keen majority of temples are between 30–60 metres (approx. 100–200 feet) in length. A small group of Doric temples, including the Parthenon, are between 60–80 metres (approx. 200–260 anxiety) in length. The largest temples, mainly Ionic and Corinthian, but including the Doric Temple of the Olympian Zeus, Agrigento, were between 90–120 metres (approx. 300–390 feet) in length.

The temple rises from a stepped base of operations or stylobate, which elevates the construction in a higher place the ground on which it stands. Early examples, such every bit the Temple of Zeus at Olympus, take two steps, merely the majority, like the Parthenon, have three, with the infrequent instance of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma having six.^[36] The core of the edifice is a masonry-built "naos" within which is a cella, a windowless room originally housing the statue of the god. The cella mostly has a porch or "pronaos" before it, and perhaps a second bedroom or "antenaos" serving equally a treasury or repository for trophies and gifts. The chambers were lit by a single large doorway, fitted with a wrought atomic number 26 grill. Some rooms appear to have been illuminated by skylights.^[36]

On the stylobate, oft completely surrounding the naos, stand rows of columns. Each temple is divers equally being of a detail type, with two terms: one describing the number of columns beyond the archway front, and the other defining their distribution.^[36]

Examples:

• Distyle in antis describes a modest temple with two columns at the front, which are set betwixt the projecting walls of the pronaos or porch, like the Temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus. (meet left, figure 1.) ^[35]
• Amphiprostyle tetrastyle describes a small temple that has columns at both ends which stand clear of the naos. Tetrastyle indicates that the columns are four in number, like those of the Temple on the Ilissus in Athens. (figure 4.) ^[35]
• Peripteral hexastyle describes a temple with a single row of peripheral columns around the naos, with six columns across the front end, like the Theseion in Athens. (figure 7.) ^[35]
• Peripteral octastyle describes a temple with a single row of columns effectually the naos, (figure 7.) with eight columns beyond the forepart, like the Parthenon, Athens. (figs. half dozen and 9.) ^[35]
• Dipteral decastyle describes the huge temple of Apollo at Didyma, with the naos surrounded past a double row of columns, (figure 6.) with ten columns across the entrance front.^[35]
• The Temple of Zeus Olympius at Agrigentum, is termed Pseudo-periteral heptastyle, considering its encircling colonnade has pseudo columns that are attached to the walls of the naos. (figure eight.) Heptastyle means that information technology has seven columns beyond the entrance front end.^[35]

Proportion and optical illusion [edit]

The platonic of proportion that was used by aboriginal Greek architects in designing temples was non a elementary mathematical progression using a foursquare module. The math involved a more complex geometrical progression, the so-called gilt mean. The ratio is like to that of the growth patterns of many spiral forms that occur in nature such as rams' horns, nautilus shells, fern fronds, and vine tendrils and which were a source of decorative motifs employed by aboriginal Greek architects as particularly in evidence in the volutes of capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.^[37]

${\displaystyle {\frac {one}{\varphi }}=\varphi -1;\;\varphi ={\frac {ane+{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}\approx 1.618}$

The ancient Greek architects took a philosophic arroyo to the rules and proportions. The determining cistron in the mathematics of whatsoever notable piece of work of architecture was its ultimate appearance. The architects calculated for perspective, for the optical illusions that make edges of objects appear concave and for the fact that columns that are viewed confronting the sky look unlike from those adjacent that are viewed confronting a shadowed wall. Because of these factors, the architects adapted the plans so that the major lines of any significant building are rarely straight.^[37] The most obvious adjustment is to the profile of columns, which narrow from base to top. However, the narrowing is not regular, just gently curved then that each columns appears to accept a slight swelling, chosen entasis beneath the middle. The entasis is never sufficiently pronounced as to make the swelling wider than the base; it is controlled by a slight reduction in the rate of decrease of diameter.^[8]

The main lines of the Parthenon are all curved.

A sectioned nautilus vanquish. These shells may have provided inspiration for voluted Ionic capitals.

The growth of the nautilus corresponds to the Golden Mean

The Parthenon, the Temple to the Goddess Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, is referred to by many as the pinnacle of aboriginal Greek compages. Helen Gardner refers to its "unsurpassable excellence", to be surveyed, studied and emulated by architects of later ages. Nevertheless, as Gardner points out, there is inappreciably a directly line in the building.^[38] Banister Fletcher calculated that the stylobate curves upwards so that its centres at either end ascent about 65 millimetres (2.half dozen inches) higher up the outer corners, and 110 mm (iv.3 in) on the longer sides. A slightly greater adjustment has been made to the entablature. The columns at the ends of the building are not vertical but are inclined towards the center, with those at the corners being out of plumb by about 65 mm (2.6 in).^[8] These outer columns are both slightly wider than their neighbours and are slightly closer than any of the others.^[39]

Style [edit]

to a higher place: Majuscule of the Ionic order showing volutes and ornamented echinus

left: Architectural elements of the Doric order showing simple curved echinus of capital

above: Capital of the Corinthian Guild showing foliate decoration and vertical volutes.

Orders [edit]

Aboriginal Greek compages of the most formal type, for temples and other public buildings, is divided stylistically into 3 Classical orders, commencement described by the Roman architectural writer Vitruvius. These are: the Doric club, the Ionic social club, and the Corinthian social club, the names reflecting their regional origins within the Greek earth. While the three orders are most hands recognizable past their capitals, they besides governed the form, proportions, details and relationships of the columns, entablature, pediment, and the stylobate.^[iii] The dissimilar orders were applied to the whole range of buildings and monuments.

The Doric gild adult on mainland Greece and spread to Magna Graecia (Italian republic). It was firmly established and well-divers in its characteristics by the time of the edifice of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, c. 600 BC. The Ionic order co-existed with the Doric, beingness favoured by the Greek cities of Ionia, in Asia Modest and the Aegean Islands. It did not reach a clearly divers grade until the mid fifth century BC.^[27] The early Ionic temples of Asia Minor were specially aggressive in calibration, such as the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.^[12] The Corinthian order was a highly decorative variant not developed until the Hellenistic period and retaining many characteristics of the Ionic. Information technology was popularised past the Romans.^[viii]

Doric social club [edit]

The Doric club is recognised by its uppercase, of which the echinus is like a circular cushion rising from the top of the column to the foursquare abacus on which residuum the lintels. The echinus appears flat and splayed in early on examples, deeper and with greater curve in after, more refined examples, and smaller and direct-sided in Hellenistic examples.^[40] A refinement of the Doric column is the entasis, a gentle convex swelling to the contour of the cavalcade, which prevents an optical illusion of concavity.^[40] This is more pronounced in before examples.

Doric columns are almost ever cut with grooves, known as "fluting", which run the length of the cavalcade and are commonly twenty in number, although sometimes fewer. The flutes meet at sharp edges called arrises. At the top of the columns, slightly below the narrowest point, and crossing the terminating arrises, are 3 horizontal grooves known as the hypotrachelion. Doric columns have no bases, until a few examples in the Hellenistic period.^[forty]

The columns of an early Doric temple such as the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse, Sicily, may have a height to base of operations bore ratio of only four:i and a column elevation to entablature ratio of 2:1, with relatively rough details. A column pinnacle to diameter of half dozen:1 became more usual, while the cavalcade height to entablature ratio at the Parthenon is about 3:1. During the Hellenistic catamenia, Doric conventions of solidity and masculinity dropped away, with the slender and unfluted columns reaching a height to diameter ratio of vii.5:ane.^[40]

The tapered fluted columns, constructed in drums, residue directly on the stylobate.

The Doric entablature is in three parts, the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. The architrave is composed of the stone lintels which span the space between the columns, with a joint occurring above the centre of each abacus. On this rests the frieze, one of the major areas of sculptural ornament. The frieze is divided into triglyphs and metopes, the triglyphs, equally stated elsewhere in this article, are a reminder of the timber history of the architectural style. Each triglyph has three vertical grooves, like to the columnar fluting, and below them, seemingly connected, are guttae, small strips that appear to connect the triglyphs to the architrave beneath.^[twoscore] A triglyph is located above the centre of each capital, and to a higher place the centre of each lintel. Notwithstanding, at the corners of the edifice, the triglyphs do not fall over the centre the column. The aboriginal architects took a pragmatic approach to the credible "rules", only extending the width of the concluding ii metopes at each end of the building.

The cornice is a narrow bulging ring of circuitous molding, which overhangs and protects the ornamented frieze, like the edge of an overhanging wooden-framed roof. It is decorated on the underside with projecting blocks, mutules, further suggesting the wooden nature of the prototype. At either end of the edifice the pediment rises from the cornice, framed past moulding of similar grade.^[40]

The pediment is decorated with figures that are in relief in the earlier examples, though well-nigh free-standing by the time of the sculpture on the Parthenon. Early architectural sculptors institute difficulty in creating satisfactory sculptural compositions in the tapering triangular infinite.^[41] By the Early Classical period, with the ornamentation of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (486–460 BC), the sculptors had solved the trouble by having a standing central figure framed past rearing centaurs and fighting men who are falling, kneeling and lying in attitudes that fit the size and angle of each part of the space.^[38] The famous sculptor Phidias fills the infinite at the Parthenon (448–432 BC) with a complex assortment of draped and undraped figures of deities, who appear in attitudes of sublime relaxation and elegance.

Ionic club [edit]

The Ionic order is recognized by its voluted capital letter, in which a curved echinus of like shape to that of the Doric order, only busy with stylised ornamentation, is surmounted past a horizontal band that scrolls under to either side, forming spirals or volutes like to those of the nautilus beat out or ram's horn. In plan, the majuscule is rectangular. It is designed to be viewed frontally but the capitals at the corners of buildings are modified with an additional scroll so as to appear regular on two adjoining faces. In the Hellenistic period, four-fronted Ionic capitals became common.^[42]

Corner uppercase with a diagonal volute, showing also details of the fluting separated by fillets.

Frieze of stylised alternating palms and reeds, and a cornice decorated with "egg and dart" moulding.

Like the Doric gild, the Ionic order retains signs of having its origins in wooden architecture. The horizontal spread of a flat timber plate across the top of a column is a mutual device in wooden construction, giving a thin upright a wider surface area on which to bear the lintel, while at the same time reinforcing the load-bearing strength of the lintel itself. Too, the columns ever take bases, a necessity in wooden architecture to spread the load and protect the base of a comparatively thin upright.^[42] The columns are fluted with narrow, shallow flutes that practise not meet at a precipitous edge just have a flat band or fillet between them. The usual number of flutes is twenty-4 simply there may be every bit many as forty-iv. The base has 2 convex mouldings called torus, and from the tardily Hellenic menses stood on a square plinth like to the abacus.^[42]

The architrave of the Ionic order is sometimes undecorated, merely more oft rises in three outwardly-stepped bands like overlapping timber planks. The frieze, which runs in a continuous band, is separated from the other members by rows of pocket-size projecting blocks. They are referred to equally dentils, meaning "teeth", just their origin is clearly in narrow wooden slats which supported the roof of a timber construction.^[42] The Ionic order is altogether lighter in appearance than the Doric, with the columns, including base and majuscule, having a 9:i ratio with the diameter, while the whole entablature was besides much narrower and less heavy than the Doric entablature. In that location was some variation in the distribution of ornament. Formalised bands of motifs such every bit alternate forms known every bit egg-and-dart were a feature of the Ionic entablatures, along with the bands of dentils. The external frieze often contained a continuous band of figurative sculpture or ornament, but this was not always the example. Sometimes a decorative frieze occurred around the upper part of the naos rather than on the exterior of the edifice. These Ionic-style friezes around the naos are sometimes found on Doric buildings, notably the Parthenon. Some temples, like the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, had friezes of figures around the lower drum of each column, separated from the fluted section by a bold moulding.^[42]

Caryatids, draped female person figures used every bit supporting members to carry the entablature, were a feature of the Ionic order, occurring at several buildings including the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi in 525 BC and at the Erechtheion, well-nigh 410 BC.^[43]

The alpine capital combines both semi-naturalistic leaves and highly stylised tendrils forming volutes.

Corinthian order [edit]

The Corinthian order does not have its origin in wooden compages. It grew directly out of the Ionic in the mid fifth century BC, and was initially of much the same style and proportion, only distinguished by its more ornate capitals.^[44] The capital was very much deeper than either the Doric or the Ionic capital, being shaped like a large krater, a bell-shaped mixing basin, and being ornamented with a double row of acanthus leaves above which rose voluted tendrils, supporting the corners of the abacus, which, no longer perfectly foursquare, splayed in a higher place them. Co-ordinate to Vitruvius, the capital was invented by a bronze founder, Callimachus of Corinth, who took his inspiration from a basket of offerings that had been placed on a grave, with a flat tile on top to protect the goods. The basket had been placed on the root of an acanthus institute which had grown up around it.^[44] The ratio of the column height to diameter is generally 10:1, with the uppercase taking upward more than 1/10 of the height. The ratio of capital height to diameter is generally about 1.16:ane.^[44]

The Corinthian gild was initially used internally, as at the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae (c. 450–425 BC). In 334 BC, it appeared equally an external feature on the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, then on a huge scale at the Temple of Zeus Olympia in Athens (174 BC–132 AD).^[44] Information technology was popularised by the Romans, who added a number of refinements and decorative details. During the Hellenistic period, Corinthian columns were sometimes built without fluting.^[44]

Decoration [edit]

Architectural decoration [edit]

This Archaic gorgon'southward head antefix has been cast in a mould, fired and painted.

The lion's caput gargoyle is fixed to a revetment on which elements of a formal frieze have been painted.

Early on wooden structures, particularly temples, were ornamented and in office protected by fired and painted terracotta revetments in the course of rectangular panels, and ornamental discs. Many fragments of these have outlived the buildings that they decorated and demonstrate a wealth of formal edge designs of geometric scrolls, overlapping patterns and foliate motifs.^[45] With the introduction of rock-congenital temples, the revetments no longer served a protective purpose and sculptured decoration became more common.

The dirt ornaments were limited to the roof of buildings, decorating the cornice, the corners and surmounting the pediment. At the corners of pediments they were called acroteria and along the sides of the building, antefixes. Early on decorative elements were mostly semi-circular, simply afterward of roughly triangular shape with moulded decoration, oftentimes palmate.^{[45] [46]} Ionic cornices were often set with a row of lion's masks, with open mouths that ejected rainwater.^{[28] [46]} From the Belatedly Classical menstruation, acroteria were sometimes sculptured figures (come across Architectural sculpture).^[47]

In the three orders of aboriginal Greek architecture, the sculptural decoration, be it a simple half round astragal, a frieze of stylised foliage or the ornate sculpture of the pediment, is all essential to the compages of which information technology is a part. In the Doric order, there is no variation in its placement. Reliefs never decorate walls in an arbitrary way. The sculpture is e'er located in several predetermined areas, the metopes and the pediment.^[45] In later Ionic architecture, there is greater variety in the types and numbers of mouldings and decorations, particularly around doorways, where voluted brackets sometimes occur supporting an ornamental cornice over a door, such equally that at the Erechtheion.^{[28] [30] [45]} A much applied narrow moulding is chosen "bead and reel" and is symmetrical, stemming from turned wooden prototypes. Wider mouldings include one with tongue-like or pointed foliage shapes, which are grooved and sometimes turned upward at the tip, and "egg and sprint" moulding which alternates ovoid shapes with narrow pointy ones.^{[28] [45] [48]}

Architectural sculpture [edit]

Architectural sculpture showed a evolution from early Archaic examples through Astringent Classical, High Classical, Late Classical and Hellenistic.^[ane] Remnants of Archaic architectural sculpture (700–500 BC) be from the early 6th century BC with the earliest surviving pedimental sculptures being fragments of a Gorgon flanked past heraldic panthers from the centre of the pediment of the Artemis Temple of Corfu.^[49] A metope from a temple known as "Temple C" at Selinus, Sicily, shows, in a better preserved state, Perseus slaying the Gorgon Medusa.^[41] Both images parallel the stylised delineation of the Gorgons on the black figure proper noun vase busy by the Nessos painter (c. 600 BC), with the face and shoulders turned frontally, and the legs in a running or kneeling position. At this date, images of terrifying monsters have predominance over the emphasis on the human figure that developed with Humanist philosophy.^[49]

Early pedimental sculptures, and those on smaller temples, were ordinarily in relief, and the late gratuitous-standing ones were ofttimes in terracotta, which has survived simply in fragments. The sculptures were covered with a layer of stucco and painted or, if terra cotta, painted with the more restrained fired colours of Greek pottery.^[50]

The Astringent Classical Style (500–450 BC) is represented by the pedimental sculptures of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (470–456 BC). The eastern pediment shows a moment of stillness and "impending drama" before the beginning of a chariot race, the figures of Zeus and the competitors being astringent and idealised representations of the human form.^[51] The western pediment has Apollo as the central figure, "majestic" and "remote", presiding over a battle of Lapiths and Centaurs, in strong contrast to that of the eastern pediment for its delineation of violent activeness, and described by Donald Eastward. Stiff equally the "well-nigh powerful piece of illustration" for a hundred years.^[51]

Classical figurative sculpture from the eastern pediment of the Parthenon, British Museum.

The reliefs and three-dimensional sculpture which adorned the frieze and pediments, respectively, of the Parthenon, are the lifelike products of the Loftier Classical way (450–400 BC) and were created under the direction of the sculptor Phidias.^[52] The pedimental sculpture represents the Gods of Olympus, while the frieze shows the Panathenaic procession and ceremonial events that took place every four years to laurels the titular Goddess of Athens.^[52] The frieze and remaining figures of the eastern pediment show a profound understanding of the human being torso, and how it varies depending upon its position and the stresses that action and emotion identify upon it. Benjamin Robert Haydon described the reclining figure of Dionysus as "the most heroic style of art, combined with all the essential item of actual life".^[53]

The names of many famous sculptors are known from the Late Classical period (400–323 BC), including Timotheos, Praxiteles, Leochares and Skopas, but their works are known mainly from Roman copies.^[ane] Little architectural sculpture of the catamenia remains intact. The Temple of Asclepius at Epidauros had sculpture by Timotheos working with the builder Theodotos. Fragments of the eastern pediment survive, showing the Sack of Troy. The scene appears to have filled the space with figures advisedly arranged to fit the gradient and shape available, as with earlier east pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympus. But the figures are more than violent in action, the central space taken upwards, not with a commanding God, just with the dynamic figure of Neoptolemos as he seizes the aged king Priam and stabs him. The remaining fragments requite the impression of a whole range of homo emotions, fright, horror, cruelty and lust for conquest.^[47] The acroteria were sculptured past Timotheus, except for that at the centre of the due east pediment which is the work of the builder. The palmate acroteria have been replaced hither with small figures, the eastern pediment beingness surmounted past a winged Nike, poised confronting the current of air.^[47]

Hellenistic architectural sculpture (323–31 BC) was to become more flamboyant, both in the rendering of expression and motion, which is often emphasised past flowing draperies, the Nike Samothrace which decorated a monument in the shape of a transport being a well-known example. The Pergamon Altar (c. 180–160 BC) has a frieze (120 metres long by 2.3 metres loftier) of figures in very loftier relief. The frieze represents the battle for supremacy of Gods and Titans, and employs many dramatic devices: frenzy, pathos and triumph, to convey the sense of disharmonize.^[54]

Primitive metope: Perseus and Medusa, Temple C at Selinunte.

Astringent Classical metope: Labours of Hercules, Temple of Zeus, Olympus

Loftier Classical frieze: Panathenaic Ritual, Parthenon, Athens

Hellenistic frieze: Boxing of Gods and Titans, the Pergamon Altar.

Ionic brace from the Erechtheion

Encounter also [edit]

• Ancient Greek art
• Ancient Roman architecture
• Byzantine architecture
• Classical architecture
• Greek civilization
• Greek technology
• Listing of ancient architectural records
• List of aboriginal Greek temples
• Modern Greek compages
• Outline of classical architecture

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c d east f} Boardman et al. 1967.
2. ^ Lawrence 1957, pp. 83–84.
3. ^ ^{a b c d east} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 126–132.
4. ^ Pevsner 1943, p. 19.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 10–14.
6. ^ ^{a b c d east} Fletcher 1996, pp. 89–91.
7. ^ Higgins & Higgins 1996, Affiliate 3.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f grand h i j} Fletcher 1996, pp. 93–97.
9. ^ ^{a b c} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 110–114.
10. ^ ^{a b c} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. ninety–109.
11. ^ Fletcher 1996; Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004.
12. ^ ^{a b} Potent 1965, p. 35.
13. ^ Strong 1965, pp. 33–102.
14. ^ Strong 1965, pp. 39–twoscore, 62–66.
15. ^ Fletcher 1996, pp. 119–121.
16. ^ Strong 1965, pp. 35–36.
17. ^ Lawrence 1957, pp. 65–67.
18. ^ Fletcher 1996, pp. 151–153.
19. ^ Neer 2012.
20. ^ Penrose 1893, pp. 42–43.
21. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 49–50.
22. ^ ^{a b} Stiff 1965, pp. 74–75.
23. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 97.
24. ^ Moffett, Fazio & Wodehouse 2003, pp. 62–64.
25. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher 1996, pp. 147–148.
26. ^ 2004 Summer Olympics Official Written report Archived 2008-08-19 at the Wayback Auto Volume 2. pp. 237, 242, 244.
27. ^ ^{a b c} Strong 1965, pp. 38–xl.
28. ^ ^{a b c d e} Fletcher 1996, p. 107.
29. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher 1996, p. 155.
30. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 159.
31. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, p. 25.
32. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, p. 12; Rostoker & Gebhard 1981, p. 212.
33. ^ ^{a b} Goldberg 1983, pp. 305–309.
34. ^ ^{a b c} Wikander 1990, pp. 285–289.
35. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Fletcher 1996, pp. 107–109.
36. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher 1996.
37. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 126.
38. ^ ^{a b} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 138–148.
39. ^ Moffett, Fazio & Wodehouse 2003, pp. fifty–53.
40. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Fletcher 1996, pp. 108–112.
41. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, pp. 58–60.
42. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Fletcher 1996, pp. 125–129.
43. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 45, 49.
44. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Fletcher 1996, pp. 137–139.
45. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 22–25.
46. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 163.
47. ^ ^{a b c} Boardman et al. 1967, p. 435.
48. ^ Fletcher 1996, p. 164.
49. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, pp. 39–40.
50. ^ Lawrence 1957, pp. 110–111.
51. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, pp. 61–62.
52. ^ ^{a b} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 143–148.
53. ^ Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, p. 145.
54. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 509–510.

Sources [edit]

• Boardman, John; Dorig, Jose; Fuchs, Werner; Hirmer, Max (1967). The Art and Architecture of Ancient Hellenic republic. London: Thames and Hudson.
• Fletcher, Banister (1996) [1896]. Cruickshank, Dan (ed.). Sir Banister's A History of Compages (20th ed.). Oxford: Architectural Press. ISBN0750622679.
• Gardner, Helen; Kleiner, Fred S.; Mamiya, Christin J. (2004). Gardner's Fine art through the Ages (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN0155050907.
• Goldberg, Marilyn Y. (July 1983). "Greek Temples and Chinese Roofs". American Journal of Archæology. 87 (three): 305–310. doi:10.2307/504798. JSTOR 504798.
• Higgins, Michael Denis; Higgins, Reynold (1996). A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean (PDF). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN0801433371.
• Lawrence, Arnold Walter (1957). Greek Architecture (Penguin History of Art). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
• Moffett, Marian; Fazio, Michael W.; Wodehouse, Laurence (2003). A World History of Architecture. London: Laurence Male monarch Publishing. ISBN1856693538.
• Neer, Richard T. (2012). Greek Fine art and Archaeology: A New History, c. 2500–c. 150 BCE. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson. ISBN9780500288771. OCLC 745332893.
• Sideris, Athanasios (2008). "Re-contextualized Antiquity: Interpretative VR Visualisation of Ancient Fine art and Architecture". In Mikropoulos, T. A.; Papachristos, N. M. (eds.). Proceedings: International Symposium on "Information and Communication Technologies in Cultural Heritage" October sixteen–eighteen, 2008. Ioannina: The Academy of Ioannina. pp. 159–176. ISBN9789609869102.
• Stierlin, Henri (2004). Greece: From Mycenae to the Parthenon. Köln: Taschen.
• Stiff, Donald East. (1965). The Classical World. London: Paul Hamlyn.
• Penrose, Francis (eleven May 1893). "The Orientation of Geek Temples". Nature. 48 (1228): 42–43.
• Pevsner, Nikolaus (1943). An Outline of European Architecture. London: John Murray.
• Rostoker, William; Gebhard, Elizabeth (Summer 1981). "The Reproduction of Rooftiles for the Archaic Temple of Poseidon at Isthmia, Greece". Periodical of Field Archæology. 8 (2): 211–212.
• Wikander, Örjan (January–March 1990). "Archaic Roof Tiles the First Generations". Hesperia. 59 (i): 285–290. doi:10.2307/148143. JSTOR 148143.

External links [edit]

• Cartwright, Mark (6 Jan 2013). "Greek Architecture". Globe History Encyclopedia . Retrieved 8 May 2021.
• The Foundations of Classical Architecture Part 2: Greek Classicism – Free educational plan by the ICAA (published Baronial 29, 2018)

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture

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